SN 2023ixf: An average-energy explosion with circumstellar medium and a precursor

¹ Heidelberger Institut für Theoretische Studien, Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, D-69118 Heidelberg, Germany
² Theoretical Physics Department, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
³ Dipartimento di Fisica, “Sapienza” Università di Roma & Sezione INFN Roma1, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy
⁴ National Research Center, Kurchatov Institute, pl. Kurchatova 1, Moscow 123182, Russia
⁵ Lebedev Physical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 53 Leninsky Avenue, Moscow 119991, Russia
⁶ M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Sternberg Astronomical Institute, 119234 Moscow, Russia
⁷ Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 1, 85748 Garching bei München, Germany

^⋆ Corresponding author; sasha.kozyreva@gmail.com

Received: 25 October 2024
Accepted: 15 January 2025

Abstract

The fortunate proximity of the Type II supernova (SN) 2023ixf has allowed astronomers to follow its evolution from almost the moment of the collapse of the progenitor’s core. SN 2023ixf can be explained as an explosion of a massive star with an energy of 0.7 × 10⁵¹ erg but with a greatly reduced envelope mass, probably because of binary interaction. In our radiative-transfer simulations, the SN ejecta of 6 M_⊙ interact with circumstellar matter (CSM) of (0.55–0.83) M_⊙ extending to 10¹⁵ cm, which results in a light curve (LC) peak matching that of SN 2023ixf. The origin of this required CSM might be gravity waves originating from convective shell burning, which could enhance wind-like mass loss during the late stages of stellar evolution. The steeply rising low-luminosity flux during the first hours after observationally confirmed non-detection, however, cannot be explained by the collision of the energetic SN shock with the CSM. Instead, we consider it as a precursor that we can fit by the emission from (0.5–0.9) M_⊙ of matter that was ejected with an energy of ∼10⁴⁹ erg a fraction of a day before the main shock of the SN explosion reached the surface of the progenitor. The source of this energy injection into the outermost shell of the stellar envelope could also be dynamical processes related to the convective activity in the progenitor’s interior or envelope. Alternatively, the early rise of the LC could point to the initial breakout of a highly non-spherical SN shock or of fast-moving asymmetrically ejected matter that was swept out well ahead of the SN shock, potentially in a low-energy, nearly relativistic jet. We also discuss that pre-SN outbursts and LC precursors can be used to study or to constrain energy deposition in the outermost stellar layers by the decay of exotic particles, such as axions, which could be produced simultaneously with neutrinos in the newly formed hot neutron star. A careful analysis of the earliest few hours of the LCs of SNe can reveal elusive precursors and provide a unique window onto the surface activity of massive stars during their core collapse. This can greatly improve our understanding of stellar physics and consequently also offer new tools for searching for exotic particles.