CARMENES input catalogue of M dwarfs - IX. Multiplicity from close spectroscopic binaries to ultra-wide systems

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Table 1

Multiplicity fraction for M dwarfs calculated in this work and published in the literature.

Reference	Spectral	Sample	d_lim^(b)	s^(c)	MF	MF+	Methodology ^(d)
	range ^(a)	size	(pc)	(au)	(%)	(%)
This work	M0–M9	2214	∼10–33	≲10⁵	${27.8}_{- 1.8}^{+ 1.9}$ ${27.8_{ - 1.8}^{ + 1.9}}$	${40.3}_{- 2.0}^{+ 2.1}$ ${40.3_{ - 2.0}^{ + 2.1}}$	Meta (Sect. 3)
	M0.0–M4.5	2038	∼24–33	≲10⁵	${28.2}_{- 1.9}^{+ 2.0}$ ${28.2_{ - 1.9}^{ + 2.0}}$	${40.5}_{- 2.1}^{+ 2.1}$ ${40.5_{ - 2.1}^{ + 2.1}}$
	M5.0–M9.5	176	∼10–24	≲10⁵	${22.7}_{- 5.6}^{+ 6.7}$ ${22.7_{ - 5.6}^{ + 6.7}}$	${38.1}_{- 6.8}^{+ 7.4}$ ${38.1_{ - 6.8}^{ + 7.4}}$

Clark et al. (2024)	M0–M9	1125	15	…	23.5 ± 2.0		SI, Meta
Susemiehl & Meyer (2022)	M	1550	15	≲10⁴	22.9 ± 2.8		Meta
Reylé et al. (2021)	M	249	10	…	22.9^(e)		Meta
Winters et al. (2019a)	M	1120	25	≲10⁴	26.8 ± 1.4		WI
Cortés-Contreras et al. (2017)	M0–M5	425	14 (86%)	∼1.4–65.6	19.5 ± 2.3^(f)		LI
Ward-Duong et al. (2015)	K7–M6	245	15	∼3–10 000	23.5 ± 3.2		AO, WI
Jódar et al. (2013)	K5–M4	451	25	≲80	${20.3}_{- 5.2}^{+ 6.9}$ $20.3_{ - 5.2}^{ + 6.9}$		LI
Janson et al. (2012)	M0–M5	761	52	∼3–227	27 ± 3		LI
Bergfors et al. (2010)	M0–M6	108	52	∼3–180	32 ± 6		LI
Law et al. (2008)	M4.5–M6.0	108	≲20	≲80	${13.6}_{- 4.0}^{+ 6.5}$ $13.6_{ - 4.0}^{ + 6.5}$		LI
Reid et al. (1997)	K2–M6	106	8	≲1800	32		SI, WI, RV
Leinert et al. (1997)	M0–M6	34	5	∼1–100	26 ± 9		SI
Simons et al. (1996)	M	66	8	∼100–1400	40		SI, WI, RV
Fischer & Marcy (1992)	M	62	20	≲10⁴	42 ± 9		SI, WI
Henry (1991)	M	74	8	…	31.3%		SI
Henry & McCarthy (1990)	M	27	5.2	≲1000	38 ± 9		SI

Notes. ^(a) ‘M’ should be read as ‘all the M dwarfs within the volume limited by d_lim’, when no specific limitation on the spectral classification of the sample is given. ^(b) The volume-complete samples limited by these distances are motivated in Sect. 2. ^(c) Not every star in the sample has been studied in the literature with the same level of detail. In Sect. 4.1 we distinguish between three possible categories depending on the resolution, from those only known (at most) Gaia to those studied in a higher detail. ^(d) Methods referred to data acquisition. SI: Speckle interferometry; LI: Lucky imaging; WI: Wide-field imaging; AO: Adaptive optics; RV: Radial-velocity; Meta: Literature meta-analysis. ^(e) Reylé et al. (2021) identified at least 94 multiple systems with M dwarfs in their 10-parsec sample, which covered a wide parameter space in mass ratios, magnitude differences, angular separations, inclinations, and orientations. They calculate a MF for all the range of masses of 27.4 ± 2.3%. While the authors did not provide a specific MF for M-dwarfs for direct comparison, we derived from their results (52 multiple M dwarfs out of 249 in total) a specific value, given the meticulous completeness of their study (see especially their Fig. 2). For this we employed the data of their first update (Reylé et al. 2022). ^(f)The authors indicated that the percentage may increase to at least 36% by including the pairs at ρ < 0.2 arcsec and ρ > 5 arcsec.

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