Issue |
A&A
Volume 696, April 2025
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|
---|---|---|
Article Number | A214 | |
Number of page(s) | 22 | |
Section | Numerical methods and codes | |
DOI | https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202453152 | |
Published online | 25 April 2025 |
Euclid: Searches for strong gravitational lenses using convolutional neural nets in Early Release Observations of the Perseus field★
1 School of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
2 Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
3 INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy
4 Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
5 INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
6 University of Trento, Via Sommarive 14, 38123 Trento, Italy
7 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Firenze, via G. Sansone 1, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy
8 INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
9 Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Natural Sciences, Physics Department, James-Franck-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
10 Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
11 Departamento Física Aplicada, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
12 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
13 INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy
14 University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Northwestern Switzerland, School of Engineering, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland
15 David A. Dunlap Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 50 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H4, Canada
16 Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
17 Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
18 SCITAS, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
19 Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3FX, UK
20 Institut de Ciències del Cosmos (ICCUB), Universitat de Barcelona (IEEC-UB), Martí i Franquès 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
21 Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
22 Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
23 Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, UMR 7095, CNRS, and Sorbonne Université, 98 bis boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
24 Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (IRAP), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, CNES, 14 Av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
25 UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
26 Department of Astronomy, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa
27 STAR Institute, Quartier Agora – Allée du six Août, 19c 4000 Liège, Belgium
28 INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
29 Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstrasse 1, 81679 München, Germany
30 Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
31 INFN, Sezione di Lecce, Via per Arnesano, CP-193, 73100 Lecce, Italy
32 Department of Mathematics and Physics E. De Giorgi, University of Salento, Via per Arnesano, CP-I93, 73100 Lecce, Italy
33 INAF-Sezione di Lecce, c/o Dipartimento Matematica e Fisica, Via per Arnesano, 73100, Lecce, Italy
34 Department of Physics, Oxford University, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK
35 Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
36 Department of Physics, Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
37 Department of Physics, Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
38 Inter-University Institute for Data Intensive Astronomy, Department of Astronomy, University of Cape Town, 7701 Rondebosch, Cape Town, South Africa
39 INAF, Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
40 Minnesota Institute for Astrophysics, University of Minnesota, 116 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
41 Dipartimento di Fisica “Aldo Pontremoli”, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
42 INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy
43 Inter-University Institute for Data Intensive Astronomy, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of the Western Cape, 7535 Bellville, Cape Town, South Africa
44 Department of Physics and Astronomy, Lehman College of the CUNY, Bronx, NY 10468, USA
45 American Museum of Natural History, Department of Astrophysics, New York, NY 10024, USA
46 Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Observatoire astronomique de Strasbourg, UMR 7550, 67000 Strasbourg, France
47 Department of Physics, Université de Montréal, 2900 Edouard Montpetit Blvd, Montréal, Québec H3T 1J4, Canada
48 Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
49 Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
50 Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
51 Laboratoire univers et particules de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, 34090 Montpellier, France
52 ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
53 School of Computing and Communications, The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK
54 Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Bordeaux, CNRS and Université de Bordeaux, Allée Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 33165 Pessac, France
55 European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands
56 School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
57 INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy
58 IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy
59 INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy
60 INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste TS, Italy
61 SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste TS, Italy
62 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
63 INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell’Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy
64 INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese (TO), Italy
65 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
66 INFN-Sezione di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
67 Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo de Alegre, 4150-007 Porto, Portugal
68 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
69 INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
70 Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain
71 Port d’Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
72 Institute for Theoretical Particle Physics and Cosmology (TTK), RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
73 INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy
74 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
75 Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Calle Vía Láctea s/n, 38204, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
76 Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh, EH9 3HJ, UK
77 European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy
78 Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne 69100, France
79 Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK
80 Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
81 Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
82 Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d’Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
83 INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy
84 INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
85 Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
86 Space Science Data Center, Italian Space Agency, via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy
87 Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France
88 FRACTAL S.L.N.E., calle Tulipán 2, Portal 13 1A, 28231 Las Rozas de Madrid, Spain
89 Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, PO Box 1029 Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
90 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA
91 Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
92 Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181 Leimen, Germany
93 Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
94 Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Denmark
95 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
96 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
97 Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
98 Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
99 Department of Physics, PO Box 64, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
100 Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
101 NOVA optical infrared instrumentation group at ASTRON, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
102 Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany
103 INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy
104 Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France
105 Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, 98bis Boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
106 Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
107 School of Mathematics, Statistics and Physics, Newcastle University, Herschel Building, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
108 DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 155, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
109 Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
110 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
111 Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
112 Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales – Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
113 Institute of Space Science, Str. Atomistilor, nr. 409 Măgurele, Ilfov 077125, Romania
114 Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “G. Galilei”, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
115 Institut für Theoretische Physik, University of Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
116 Université St Joseph; Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon
117 Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada 2008, Santiago, Chile
118 Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Astround Teilchenphysik, Technikerstr. 25/8, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
119 Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Edifici RDIT, Campus UPC, 08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona, Spain
120 Satlantis, University Science Park, Sede Bld 48940, Leioa-Bilbao, Spain
121 Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
122 Centre for Electronic Imaging, Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
123 Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal
124 Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, Plaza del Hospital 1, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
125 INFN-Bologna, Via Irnerio 46, 40126 Bologna, Italy
126 Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli studi di Genova, and INFN-Sezione di Genova, via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
127 Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
128 Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA), Loc. Lignan 39, 11020 Nus (Aosta Valley), Italy
129 Aurora Technology for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
130 ICL, Junia, Université Catholique de Lille, LITL, 59000 Lille, France
131 ICSC – Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data e Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, Bologna, Italy
132 SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Landleven 12, 9747 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
★★ Corresponding author; ruby.pearce-casey@open.ac.uk
Received:
25
November
2024
Accepted:
24
March
2025
The Euclid Wide Survey (EWS) is predicted to find approximately 170 000 galaxy-galaxy strong lenses from its lifetime observation of 14 000 deg2 of the sky. Detecting this many lenses by visual inspection with professional astronomers and citizen scientists alone is infeasible. As a result, machine learning algorithms, particularly convolutional neural networks (CNNs), have been used as an automated method of detecting strong lenses, and have proven fruitful in finding galaxy-galaxy strong lens candidates, such that the usage of CNNs in lens identification has increased. We identify the major challenge to be the automatic detection of galaxy-galaxy strong lenses while simultaneously maintaining a low false positive rate, thus producing a pure and complete sample of strong lens candidates from Euclid with a limited need for visual inspection. One aim of this research is to have a quantified starting point on the achieved purity and completeness with our current version of CNN-based detection pipelines for the VIS images of EWS. This work is vital in preparing our CNN-based detection pipelines to be able to produce a pure sample of the >100 000 strong gravitational lensing systems widely predicted for Euclid. We select all sources with VIS IE < 23 mag from the Euclid Early Release Observation imaging of the Perseus field. We apply a range of CNN architectures to detect strong lenses in these cutouts. All our networks perform extremely well on simulated data sets and their respective validation sets. However, when applied to real Euclid imaging, the highest lens purity is just ∼11%. Among all our networks, the false positives are typically identifiable by human volunteers as, for example, spiral galaxies, multiple sources, and artifacts, implying that improvements are still possible, perhaps via a second, more interpretable lens selection filtering stage. There is currently no alternative to human classification of CNN-selected lens candidates. Given the expected ∼105 lensing systems in Euclid, this implies 106 objects for human classification, which while very large is not in principle intractable and not without precedent.
Key words: methods: data analysis / surveys / dark matter / large-scale structure of Universe
© The Authors 2025
Open Access article, published by EDP Sciences, under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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