The persistent shadow of the supermassive black hole of M87

II. Model comparisons and theoretical interpretations

¹ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, 99 Millstone Road, Westford, MA, 01886, USA
² National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8588, Japan
³ Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, 20 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
⁴ Departament d’Astronomia i Astrofísica, Universitat de València, C. Dr. Moliner 50, E-46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
⁵ Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía-CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía s/n, E-18008 Granada, Spain
⁶ Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, Auf dem Hügel 69, D-53121 Bonn, Germany
⁷ Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
⁸ Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX, 78249, USA
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¹¹ Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, 11F of Astronomy-Mathematics Building, AS/NTU No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 106216, Taiwan, ROC
¹² Observatori Astronòmic, Universitat de València, C. Catedrático José Beltrán 2, E-46980 Paterna, València, Spain
¹³ Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, SE-43992 Onsala, Sweden
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²⁰ East Asian Observatory, 660 N. A’ohoku Place, Hilo, HI, 96720, USA
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²² California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
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²⁴ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2505 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
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²⁹ Department of Astrophysics, Institute for Mathematics, Astrophysics and Particle Physics (IMAPP), Radboud University, P.O. Box 9010 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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³³ Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
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³⁷ Cornell Center for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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⁴⁰ Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daedeok-daero 776, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34055, Republic of Korea
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⁴⁴ Instituto de Astronomía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Apdo Postal 70-264 Ciudad de México, Mexico
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⁴⁶ Research Center for Astronomical Computing, Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou, 311100, People’s Republic of China
⁴⁷ Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shengrong Road 520, Shanghai, 201210, People’s Republic of China
⁴⁸ Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Peyton Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
⁴⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica “E. Pancini”, Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Compl. Univ. di Monte S. Angelo, Edificio G, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Napoli, Italy
⁵⁰ INFN Sez. di Napoli, Compl. Univ. di Monte S. Angelo, Edificio G, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Napoli, Italy
⁵¹ Wits Centre for Astrophysics, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa
⁵² Department of Physics, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
⁵³ Centre for Radio Astronomy Techniques and Technologies, Department of Physics and Electronics, Rhodes University, Makhanda, 6140, South Africa
⁵⁴ ASTRON, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
⁵⁵ LESIA, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, 5 place Jules Janssen, F-92195 Meudon, France
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⁵⁷ National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, PR China
⁵⁸ Las Cumbres Observatory, 6740 Cortona Drive, Suite 102, Goleta, CA, 93117-5575, USA
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⁶⁰ National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 520 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
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⁶³ Institut für Theoretische Physik und Astrophysik, Universität Würzburg, Emil-Fischer-Str. 31, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany
⁶⁴ Department of History of Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
⁶⁵ Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
⁶⁶ NCSA, University of Illinois, 1205 W. Clark St., Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
⁶⁷ Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, R. do Matão, 1226, São Paulo, SP, 05508-090, Brazil
⁶⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, SP Monserrato-Sestu km 0.7, I-09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy
⁶⁹ INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, via della Scienza 5, I-09047 Selargius (CA), Italy
⁷⁰ INFN, sezione di Cagliari, I-09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy
⁷¹ Institute for Mathematics and Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 205, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
⁷² Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
⁷³ CP3-Origins, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark
⁷⁴ Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica, Apartado Postal 51 y 216, 72000 Puebla Pue., Mexico
⁷⁵ Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología, Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, 03940 Ciudad de México, Mexico
⁷⁶ Key Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200030, PR China
⁷⁷ Graduate School of Science, Nagoya City University, Yamanohata 1, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8501 Aichi, Japan
⁷⁸ Mizusawa VLBI Observatory, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, 2-12 Hoshigaoka, Mizusawa, Oshu, Iwate, 023-0861, Japan
⁷⁹ Department of Physics, McGill University, 3600 rue University, Montréal, QC, H3A 2T8, Canada
⁸⁰ Trottier Space Institute at McGill, 3550 rue University, Montréal, QC, H3A 2A7, Canada
⁸¹ NOVA Sub-mm Instrumentation Group, Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Landleven 12, 9747 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
⁸² Department of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China
⁸³ Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China
⁸⁴ Department of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8588, Japan
⁸⁵ Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
⁸⁶ The Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo, 190-8562, Japan
⁸⁷ Department of Statistical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), 10-3 Midori-cho, Tachikawa, Tokyo, 190-8562, Japan
⁸⁸ Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, 277-8583, Japan
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⁹⁰ ASTRAVEO LLC, PO Box 1668 Gloucester, MA, 01931, USA
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⁹³ University of Science and Technology, Gajeong-ro 217, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
⁹⁴ Institute for Cosmic Ray Research, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-8582, Japan
⁹⁵ Joint Institute for VLBI ERIC (JIVE), Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
⁹⁶ Department of Physics, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Republic of Korea
⁹⁷ Department of Physics, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
⁹⁸ Kogakuin University of Technology & Engineering, Academic Support Center, 2665-1 Nakano, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0015, Japan
⁹⁹ Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata, 950-2181, Japan
¹⁰⁰ Physics Department, National Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 70, Lien-Hai Road, Kaosiung City, 80424, Taiwan, ROC
¹⁰¹ School of Astronomy and Space Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
¹⁰² Key Laboratory of Modern Astronomy and Astrophysics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, PR China
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¹⁰⁷ Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 106216, Taiwan, ROC
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¹¹⁰ Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 650011 Kunming, Yunnan Province, PR China
¹¹¹ Center for Astronomical Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100012, PR China
¹¹² Key Laboratory for the Structure and Evolution of Celestial Objects, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 650011 Kunming, PR China
¹¹³ Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
¹¹⁴ Gravitation and Astroparticle Physics Amsterdam (GRAPPA) Institute, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
¹¹⁵ School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
¹¹⁶ Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM), Avenida Divina Pastora 7, Local 20, E-18012 Granada, Spain
¹¹⁷ National Institute of Technology, Hachinohe College, 16-1 Uwanotai, Tamonoki, Hachinohe City, Aomori, 039-1192, Japan
¹¹⁸ Research Center for Astronomy, Academy of Athens, Soranou Efessiou 4, 115 27 Athens, Greece
¹¹⁹ Department of Physics, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA, 19085, USA
¹²⁰ Physics Department, Washington University, CB 1105, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
¹²¹ Departamento de Matemática da Universidade de Aveiro and Centre for Research and Development in Mathematics and Applications (CIDMA), Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
¹²² School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, 837 State St NW, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
¹²³ School of Space Research, Kyung Hee University, 1732, Deogyeong-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 17104, Republic of Korea
¹²⁴ Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 60 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H8, Canada
¹²⁵ Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 50 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3H4, Canada
¹²⁶ Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 180 Dundas St West, Toronto, ON, M5G 1Z8, Canada
¹²⁷ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Trieste, I-34127 Trieste, Italy
¹²⁸ INFN Sez. di Trieste, I-34127 Trieste, Italy
¹²⁹ Department of Physics, National Taiwan Normal University, No. 88, Sec. 4, Tingzhou Rd., Taipei 116, Taiwan, ROC
¹³⁰ Center of Astronomy and Gravitation, National Taiwan Normal University, No. 88, Sec. 4, Tingzhou Road, Taipei, 116, Taiwan, ROC
¹³¹ Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turun Yliopisto, Finland
¹³² Aalto University Metsähovi Radio Observatory, Metsähovintie 114, FI-02540 Kylmälä, Finland
¹³³ Gemini Observatory/NSF NOIRLab, 670 N. A’ohōkū Place, Hilo, HI, 96720, USA
¹³⁴ Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Ruth-Moufang-Strasse 1, D-60438 Frankfurt, Germany
¹³⁵ School of Mathematics, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
¹³⁶ Department of Physics, University of Toronto, 60 St. George Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A7, Canada
¹³⁷ Department of Physics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
¹³⁸ Hiroshima Astrophysical Science Center, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
¹³⁹ Aalto University Department of Electronics and Nanoengineering, PL 15500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
¹⁴⁰ Jeremiah Horrocks Institute, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
¹⁴¹ National Biomedical Imaging Center, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China
¹⁴² College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China
¹⁴³ Tokyo Electron Technology Solutions Limited, 52 Matsunagane, Iwayado, Esashi, Oshu, Iwate, 023-1101, Japan
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¹⁴⁶ Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
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¹⁴⁸ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
¹⁴⁹ University of New Mexico, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA
¹⁵⁰ Physics Department, Brandeis University, 415 South Street, Waltham, MA, 02453, USA
¹⁵¹ Tuorla Observatory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turun Yliopisto, Finland
¹⁵² Radboud Excellence Fellow of Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
¹⁵³ School of Natural Sciences, Institute for Advanced Study, 1 Einstein Drive, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
¹⁵⁴ School of Physics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, PR China
¹⁵⁵ Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St. Mary, Dorking, Surrey, RH5 6NT, UK
¹⁵⁶ Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China
¹⁵⁷ Astronomy Department, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, PR China
¹⁵⁸ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, 567 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

^⋆⋆⋆ Corresponding author; ehtrepository@gmail.com

Received: 28 June 2024
Accepted: 8 October 2024

Abstract

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) observation of M87^∗ in 2018 has revealed a ring with a diameter that is consistent with the 2017 observation. The brightest part of the ring is shifted to the southwest from the southeast. In this paper, we provide theoretical interpretations for the multi-epoch EHT observations for M87^∗ by comparing a new general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics model image library with the EHT observations for M87^∗ in both 2017 and 2018. The model images include aligned and tilted accretion with parameterized thermal and nonthermal synchrotron emission properties. The 2018 observation again shows that the spin vector of the M87^∗ supermassive black hole is pointed away from Earth. A shift of the brightest part of the ring during the multi-epoch observations can naturally be explained by the turbulent nature of black hole accretion, which is supported by the fact that the more turbulent retrograde models can explain the multi-epoch observations better than the prograde models. The EHT data are inconsistent with the tilted models in our model image library. Assuming that the black hole spin axis and its large-scale jet direction are roughly aligned, we expect the brightest part of the ring to be most commonly observed 90 deg clockwise from the forward jet. This prediction can be statistically tested through future observations.