Sulfur-bearing molecules in a sample of early star-forming cores

¹ CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Astronomía y Física del Espacio, Buenos Aires, Argentina
² Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Física, Buenos Aires, Argentina
³ Instituto Superior de Formación Docente N o 41, Adrogué, Argentina
⁴ Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Astronómicas y Geofísicas, La Plata, Argentina

^★ Corresponding authors; sparon@iafe.uba.ar, nmartinez@iafe.uba.ar

Received: 23 September 2024
Accepted: 31 October 2024

Abstract

Aims. The sulfur content in dense molecular regions is highly depleted in comparison to diffuse clouds. The reason for this phenomenon is unclear, and it is therefore necessary to carry out observational studies of sulfur-bearing species toward dense regions, mainly in early evolution stages. In this context, the analysis of sulfur-bearing molecules in a large sample of dense starless molecular cores is of great importance to help us uncover the early sulfur chemistry in these regions.

Methods. From the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) data archive, we selected a project in Band 7 (275-373 GHz), which contains the emission of several sulfur-bearing species. The observations were performed toward a sample of 37 dense cores that are embedded in the most massive infrared-quiet molecular clumps from the ATLASGAL survey. The lines of ³⁴SO, SO₂, NS, SO, SO⁺, and H₂CS were analyzed, and the column densities of each molecular species were obtained. Based on the continuum emission and two CH₃OH lines, the 37 cores were characterized in density and temperature, and the corresponding H₂ column densities were derived. The abundances of these sulfur-bearing species were derived and studied.

Results. We find that the abundances of the analyzed sulfur-bearing species increase with increasing gas temperature. Based on the correlation between abundances and temperature, we suggest that the chemistry involved in the formation of each of the analyzed molecules may similarly depend on T_k in the range 20–100 K. Additionally, we find that the comparisons among abundances are highly correlated in general. Taking into account that this correlation decreases in more evolved sources, we suggest that the sulfur-bearing species we analyzed have a similar chemical origin. Our observational results show that the X(SO₂)/X(SO) ratio can be used as a chemical clock of molecular cores. Based on the line widths of the molecular lines, we point out that molecules with an oxygen content (³⁴SO, SO₂, SO, and SO+) may be associated with warmer and more turbulent gas than the other molecules. H₂CS and NS are associated with more quiescent gas, probably in the external envelopes of the cores, which trace similar physical and chemical conditions. We complement recent similar works done toward more evolved sources with a large sample of sources, but also provide quantitative information about abundances that might be useful in chemical models for explaining the sulfur chemistry in the interstellar medium.