The birth and early evolution of a low-mass protostar

¹ Université Paris Cité, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
e-mail: adnan.ali.ahmad1998@gmail.com
² Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
³ Univ. Lyon, ENS de Lyon, Univ. Lyon 1, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon, UMR5574, 69007 Lyon, France

Received: 20 April 2023
Accepted: 2 October 2023

Abstract

Context. Understanding the collapse of dense molecular cloud cores to stellar densities and the subsequent evolution of the protostar is of importance to model the feedback effects such an object has on its surrounding environment, as well as describing the conditions with which it enters the stellar evolutionary track. This process is fundamentally multi-scale, both in density and in spatial extent, and requires the inclusion of complex physical processes such as self-gravity, turbulence, radiative transfer, and magnetic fields. As such, it necessitates the use of robust numerical simulations.

Aims. We aim to model the birth and early evolution of a low-mass protostar. We also seek to describe the interior structure of the protostar and the radiative behavior of its accretion shock front.

Methods. We carried out a high resolution numerical simulation of the collapse of a gravitationally unstable 1 M_⊙ dense molecular cloud core to stellar densities using 3D radiation hydrodynamics under the gray flux-limited diffusion approximation. We followed the initial isothermal phase, the first adiabatic contraction, the second gravitational collapse triggered by the dissociation of H₂ molecules, and ≈247 days of the subsequent main accretion phase.

Results. We find that the subcritical radiative behavior of the protostar’s shock front causes it to swell as it accretes matter. We also find that the protostar is turbulent from the moment of its inception despite its radiative stability. This turbulence causes significant entropy mixing inside the protostar, which regulates the swelling. Furthermore, we find that the protostar is not fully ionized at birth, but the relative amount of ionized material within it increases as it accretes matter from its surroundings. Finally, we report in the appendix the results of the first 3D calculations involving a frequency-dependent treatment of radiative transfer, which has not produced any major differences with its gray counterpart.