Euclid preparation

XVI. Exploring the ultra-low surface brightness Universe with Euclid/VIS

¹ NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
e-mail: a.s.borlaff@nasa.gov
² ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
³ FRACTAL S.L.N.E., Calle Tulipán 2, Portal 13 1A, 28231 Las Rozas de Madrid, Spain
⁴ European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands
⁵ Departamento de Física Teórica, Atómica y Óptica, Universidad de Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
⁶ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal
⁷ AIM, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Paris, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
⁸ Observatoire de Paris, PSL Research University 61, Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75014 Paris, France
⁹ Observatoire Astronomique de Strasbourg (ObAS), Université de Strasbourg – CNRS, UMR 7550, Strasbourg, France
¹⁰ Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3FX, UK
¹¹ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy
¹² INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy
¹³ Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK
¹⁴ IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, Via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy
¹⁵ SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, TS, Italy
¹⁶ INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, TS, Italy
¹⁷ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34131 Trieste, Italy
¹⁸ Universidad de la Laguna, 38206 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
¹⁹ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Calle Vía Láctea s/n, 38204 San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
²⁰ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Universitá di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
²¹ INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
²² Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstrasse 1, 81679 München, Germany
²³ Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
²⁴ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese, TO, Italy
²⁵ Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, Ch. d’Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
²⁶ INFN-Sezione di Roma Tre, Via della Vasca Navale 84, 00146 Roma, Italy
²⁷ Department of Mathematics and Physics, Roma Tre University, Via della Vasca Navale 84, 00146 Rome, Italy
²⁸ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy
²⁹ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy
³⁰ Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
³¹ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
³² INFN-Bologna, Via Irnerio 46, 40126 Bologna, Italy
³³ Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Universitá degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
³⁴ INAF, Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
³⁵ Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (IRAP), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, CNES, 14 Av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
³⁶ INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
³⁷ Dipartimento di Fisica, Universitá degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
³⁸ Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Bd de l’Observatoire, CS 34229, 06304 Nice Cedex 4, France
³⁹ INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁴⁰ Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
⁴¹ Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
⁴² Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Carrer Gran Capitá 2-4, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
⁴³ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Universitá di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁴⁴ Observatoire de Sauverny, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
⁴⁵ Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
⁴⁶ INFN Section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
⁴⁷ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
⁴⁸ Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules, 3 Rue Michel-Ange, 75794 Paris Cédex 16, France
⁴⁹ Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, Toulouse, France
⁵⁰ Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK
⁵¹ Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
⁵² European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy
⁵³ Univ. Lyon, Univ. Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
⁵⁴ University of Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I, Lyon, France
⁵⁵ Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵⁶ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵⁷ Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, 91405 Orsay, France
⁵⁸ Department of Physics, Oxford University, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK
⁵⁹ INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
⁶⁰ INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, Via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy
⁶¹ INAF-IASF Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁶² Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, 98bis Boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁶³ Université de Paris, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France
⁶⁴ Research Program in Systems Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
⁶⁵ Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, PO Box 64, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁶⁶ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell’Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy
⁶⁷ Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, PO Box 1029, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
⁶⁸ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA
⁶⁹ von Hoerner & Sulger GmbH, SchloßPlatz 8, 68723 Schwetzingen, Germany
⁷⁰ Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
⁷¹ Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁷² Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France
⁷³ Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 Quai Ernest-Ansermet, 1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
⁷⁴ Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
⁷⁵ Helsinki Institute of Physics, University of Helsinki, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, Helsinki, Finland
⁷⁶ NOVA Optical Infrared Instrumentation Group at ASTRON, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
⁷⁷ Centre de Calcul de l’IN2P3, 21 Avenue Pierre de Coubertin, 69627 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
⁷⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica “Aldo Pontremoli”, Universitá degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁷⁹ INFN-Sezione di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁸⁰ Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Universität Bonn, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany
⁸¹ Instituto de Física Teórica UAM-CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
⁸² Aix-Marseille Univ., CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
⁸³ Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía, CSIC, Glorieta de la Astronomía, 18080 Granada, Spain
⁸⁴ Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
⁸⁵ Institut für Theoretische Physik, University of Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
⁸⁶ Zentrum für Astronomie, Universität Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 12, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
⁸⁷ Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) – Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio (OAS), Via Gobetti 93/3, 40127 Bologna, Italy
⁸⁸ California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
⁸⁹ ICC & CEA, Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, DH1 3LE Durham, UK
⁹⁰ INFN, Sezione di Lecce, Via per Arnesano, CP-193, 73100 Lecce, Italy
⁹¹ Department of Mathematics and Physics E. De Giorgi, University of Salento, Via per Arnesano, CP-I93, 73100 Lecce, Italy
⁹² Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Aarhus, Ny Munkegade 120, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
⁹³ Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
⁹⁴ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
⁹⁵ Centre for Astrophysics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
⁹⁶ Institute of Space Science, Bucharest 077125, Romania
⁹⁷ Institute for Computational Science, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
⁹⁸ Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁹⁹ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “G. Galilei”, Universitá di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
¹⁰⁰ Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada, 2008 Santiago, Chile
¹⁰¹ Centre for Electronic Imaging, Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
¹⁰² Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain
¹⁰³ Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
¹⁰⁴ Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
¹⁰⁵ Department of Physics, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35 (YFL), 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
¹⁰⁶ Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
¹⁰⁷ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK

Received: 2 August 2021
Accepted: 18 August 2021

Abstract

Context. While Euclid is an ESA mission specifically designed to investigate the nature of dark energy and dark matter, the planned unprecedented combination of survey area (∼15 000 deg²), spatial resolution, low sky-background, and depth also make Euclid an excellent space observatory for the study of the low surface brightness Universe. Scientific exploitation of the extended low surface brightness structures requires dedicated calibration procedures that are yet to be tested.

Aims. We investigate the capabilities of Euclid to detect extended low surface brightness structure by identifying and quantifying sky-background sources and stray-light contamination. We test the feasibility of generating sky flat-fields to reduce large-scale residual gradients in order to reveal the extended emission of galaxies observed in the Euclid survey.

Methods. We simulated a realistic set of Euclid/VIS observations, taking into account both instrumental and astronomical sources of contamination, including cosmic rays, stray-light, zodiacal light, interstellar medium, and the cosmic infrared background, while simulating the effects of background sources in the field of view.

Results. We demonstrate that a combination of calibration lamps, sky flats, and self-calibration would enable recovery of emission at a limiting surface brightness magnitude of μ_lim = 29.5_−0.27^+0.08 mag arcsec⁻² (3σ, 10 × 10 arcsec²) in the Wide Survey, and it would reach regions deeper by 2 mag in the Deep Surveys.

Conclusions.Euclid/VIS has the potential to be an excellent low surface brightness observatory. Covering the gap between pixel-to-pixel calibration lamp flats and self-calibration observations for large scales, the application of sky flat-fielding will enhance the sensitivity of the VIS detector at scales larger than 1″, up to the size of the field of view, enabling Euclid to detect extended surface brightness structures below μ_lim = 31 mag arcsec⁻² and beyond.