Analytic description of the gas flow around planets embedded in protoplanetary disks

¹ Center for Star and Planet Formation, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5–7, 1350 Copenhagen, Denmark
e-mail: ayumu.kuwahara@sund.ku.dk
² Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan
³ Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
⁴ Department of Earth Science and Astronomy, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan

Received: 21 July 2023
Accepted: 3 November 2023

Abstract

Context. A growing planet embedded in a protoplanetary disk induces three-dimensional gas flow, which exhibits a midplane outflow that can suppress dust accretion onto the planet and form global dust substructures (rings and gaps).

Aims. Because analytic formulae for the planet-induced outflow are useful for modeling its influences on local and global dust surface densities and planet accretion, we derived analytic formulae that describe the morphology and velocity of the planet-induced outflow.

Methods. We first performed three-dimensional, nonisothermal hydrodynamical simulations of the gas flow past a planet, which enabled us to introduce a fitting formula that describes the morphology of the outflow. We then derived an analytic formula for the outflow speed using Bernoulli’s theorem.

Results. We successfully derived a fitting formula for the midplane outflow morphology (the shape of the streamline), which is valid when the dimensionless thermal mass falls below m ≲ 0.6. The obtained analytic formulae for the outflow, such as the maximum outflow speed and the velocity distributions of the outflow in the radial and vertical directions to the disk, show good agreement with the numerical results. We find the following trends: (1) the maximum outflow speed increases with the planetary mass and has a peak of ~30–40% of the sound speed when the dimensionless thermal mass is m ~ 0.3, corresponding to a super-Earth mass planet at 1 au for the typical steady accretion disk model, and (2) the presence of the headwind (namely, the global pressure force acting in the positive radial direction of the disk) enhances (reduces) the outflow toward the outside (inside) of the planetary orbit.

Conclusions. The planet-induced outflow of the gas affects the dust motion when the dimensionless stopping time of dust falls below St ≲ min(10 m², 0.1), which can be used to model the dust velocity influenced by the outflow.