Spectral energy distributions of classical Cepheids in the Magellanic Clouds^★,★★

¹ Koninklijke Sterrenwacht van België, Ringlaan 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium
e-mail: martin.groenewegen@oma.be
² Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands

Received: 2 February 2023
Accepted: 4 July 2023

Abstract

In this study, we constructed spectral energy distributions (SEDs) for a sample of 142 Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and 77 Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) fundamental-mode classical Cepheids (CCs) using photometric data from the literature. When possible, the data were taken to be representative of mean light or averaged over the light curve. The sample was built from stars that either have a metallicity determination from high-resolution spectroscopy or have been used in Baade-Wesselink types of analyses, or have a radial velocity curve published in Gaia DR3 or have Walraven photometry, or have their light- and radial-velocity curves modelled by pulsation codes. The SEDs were fitted with stellar photosphere models to derive the best-fitting luminosity and effective temperature. Distance and reddening were taken from the literature. Only one star with a significant infrared (IR) excess was found in the LMC and none in the SMC. IR excess in MW CCs is not uncommon suggesting that IR excess may be more prominent in MW cepheids than in the Magellanic Clouds. The stars were plotted in a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HRD) and compared to evolutionary tracks for CCs and to theoretical instability strips. For the large majority of stars, the position in the HRD is consistent with the instability strip. Period-luminosity (PL) and period-radius relations were derived and compared to these relations in the MW. For a fixed slope, the zero point of the bolometric PL relation does not depend on metallicity, contrary to recent findings of a significant metallicity term when considering the PL relation in different photometric bands. The mass-luminosity (ML) relation is derived and it points to an over luminosity of about +0.3 dex with respect to a canonical ML relation. The most intriguing result concerns the flux-weighted gravity (FWG, a quantity derived from gravity and effective temperature) and its relation to period and luminosity. Both relations agree with theory, with the results for the MW and with the independent estimates from the six known LMC eclipsing binaries that contain CCs. However, the FWG (as determined from dedicated high-resolution spectroscopy for the sample) is too low by about 0.8 dex in 90% of the cases. Recent works on time-series data on 20 CCs in the MW were analysed finding a similar (but less extreme) offset in gravity and the FWG. Most importantly, other time-series data on the same 20 CCs are in full agreement with the FWG-period relation. The observed time-series of spectroscopic data and from a two-dimensional hydrodynamical cepheid model was used to investigate the so-called effective gravity, that is, the gravity corrected for a dynamical term related to the time derivative of the radial velocity. There is a reasonable good correspondence between the predicted effective gravity and the observed gravity as a function of pulsation phase, which would potentially allow for an independent estimate of the projection factor, but the dynamical term is too small to explain the overall difference between the observed (flux-weighted) gravity and the (flux-weighted) gravity derived from the SED modelling and stellar mass estimates.