Lupus exoplanet masses obtained using DBNets plotted against the semimajor axis, assuming that the gaps are carved by planets. In blue, we show all observed exoplanets around M and K stars from the NASA Exoplanet Archive catalog, while the orange markers represent estimates for the Lupus sample. Brown outlines indicate cavities as the type of substructure, while green outlines denote gaps and rings. Additionally, planet mass estimates from Zhang et al. (2023), Huang et al. (2024a), and Ruzza et al. (2024) are highlighted in crimson circle markers.