Notes. The RMSE was computed between each ground truth convergence map κ_i and the corresponding reconstruction ${\widehat{\kappa }}_i$. The empirical means and standard deviations were computed over the test set (γ_i,  κ_i)_{i = n + 1}^m for each mass mapping method and are reported in this table. “KS1” and “KS2” correspond to the KS estimators with weak and strong smoothing, respectively. The second row focuses on pixels k such that |κ_i[k]| ≥ 4.8 × 10⁻².