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Fig. 4

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Calculated turbulence αfrag responsible for the fragmentation velocity υfrag = 1 m s−1 and gas-to-dust ratio of 100. An overall low value of 10−4 is found in five out of seven disks. IM Lup appears to show a systemically higher value of ~10−3. An increasing αfrag is found in HL Tau, which could be associated with the late-infalling material; see discussion. The infalling accretion shock impact on the disk traced by SO and SO2 located at 50–100 au (Garufi et al. 2022) is roughly consistent with the B85 ring, where we also find the peak in αfrag. In the region dashed by orange lines, the data in all wavelengths used in the multi-wavelength analysis are optically thick, and therefore the results are less robust.

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