Fig. 2

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Growth and migration of single protoplanets born with lunar masses at different turbulent levels and pebble-to-gas mass flux ratios around stars of M★ = 0.1 M⊙. Three turbulent coefficients of αt = 10−2 (upper), 10−3 (middle) and 10−4 (lower) and two pebble-to-gas flux ratios of ξp/g = 1% (left) and 2% (right) are shown. The planet and disk parameters are listed in Table 1. The dashed line represents the pebble isolation mass at the time when the planet born at 1 au reaches this value. We note that in panel (a) planets never approach the isolation mass. We instead adopt the isolation mass using the stellar irradiation model. The increasing sizes of the dots denote the disk evolution at one Myr intervals. Massive planets prefer to form in mental-rich and highly turbulent disks.
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