Monte-Carlo simulation results for methods described in Sect. 5. The q values have been multiplied by two in order to make them directly comparable to α_z (see Appendix F). The black line indicates the reference value of the model, which is expected from the model without any fluctuations. The red dashed line shows the mean value from the Monte-Carlo simulations. The gray shaded areas represent the range of 1, 2, and 3σ around the Monte-Carlo mean.