Freely propagating flanks of wide coronal-mass-ejection-driven shocks: Modelling and observational insights

¹ Center for mathematical Plasma Astrophysics, KU Leuven, Kortrijk/Leuven, Belgium
² Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
³ The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA
⁴ Predictive Science Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
⁵ European Space Astronomy Centre, European Space Agency, Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
⁶ Universidad de Alcalá, Space Research Group (SRG-UAH), Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain

^⋆ Corresponding author.

Received: 23 December 2024
Accepted: 21 April 2025

Abstract

Context. Widespread solar energetic particle (SEP) events remain poorly understood phenomena in space weather. These events are often linked to coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and their shocks, but the mechanisms governing their global particle distribution remain debated. The 13 March 2023 event is particularly notable as a widespread SEP event associated with an exceptionally fast interplanetary shock. With speeds of up to 3000 km/s, it is one of the most extreme shocks observed in recent years.

Aims. We aim to investigate whether the flanks of a wide CME-driven shock can decouple from the CME and continue propagating as freely propagating shock waves. If shocks are the primary SEP source, such a mechanism could help explain some of the widest SEP events.

Methods. Using EUHFORIA, a 3D magnetohydrodynamic heliospheric model, we simulated the evolution of wide CME-driven shocks. We modified the model to allow direct shock injection at the inner boundary, upstream of the CME ejecta. Applying this to the 13 March 2023 event, we modelled two simultaneous CMEs whose shocks form a single, wide shock envelope that spans 280° in longitude. We then compared our results to in situ observations.

Results. Our simulations show that the flanks of wide CME shocks can persist as freely propagating waves beyond 2 au. For the 13 March 2023 event, the modelled shock arrival times and amplitudes of associated plasma parameters (e.g. speed and density) show good agreement with observations from various spacecraft distributed across different radial distances and longitudes. Furthermore, the combined shock structure expands into a quasi-circumsolar wave as it propagates outwards.

Conclusions. These findings indicate that the shock flanks of fast CMEs can persist for a long time, supporting the idea that such freely propagating shock flanks play a key role in the global distribution of SEPs in widespread events.