Euclid preparation

LV. Exploring the properties of proto-clusters in the Simulated Euclid Wide Survey

¹ Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748 Garching, Germany
² Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Schellingstrasse 4, 80799 Munich, Germany
³ Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, Boltzmannstr. 8, 85748 Garching, Germany
⁴ INAF-Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁵ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC); Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), 38200 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁶ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, Via G. B. Tiepolo 11, 34143 Trieste, Italy
⁷ Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Bd de l’Observatoire, CS 34229, 06304 Nice Cedex 4, France
⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁹ INFN-Sezione di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
¹⁰ Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Bologna, Via Irnerio 46, 40126 Bologna, Italy
¹¹ School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
¹² INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera, Via Brera 28, 20122 Milano, Italy
¹³ Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
¹⁴ INFN-Bologna, Via Irnerio 46, 40126 Bologna, Italy
¹⁵ IFPU, Institute for Fundamental Physics of the Universe, via Beirut 2, 34151 Trieste, Italy
¹⁶ Institute of Physics, Laboratory for Galaxy Evolution, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Observatoire de Sauverny, CH-1290 Versoix, Switzerland
¹⁷ Institut für Theoretische Physik, University of Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 16, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
¹⁸ Zentrum für Astronomie, Universität Heidelberg, Philosophenweg 12, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
¹⁹ Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Astroparticule et Cosmologie, 75013 Paris, France
²⁰ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7535, South Africa
²¹ Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d’astrophysique spatiale, 91405 Orsay, France
²² ESAC/ESA, Camino Bajo del Castillo, s/n., Urb. Villafranca del Castillo, 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
²³ INFN, Sezione di Trieste, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste TS, Italy
²⁴ SISSA, International School for Advanced Studies, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste TS, Italy
²⁵ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
²⁶ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese (TO), Italy
²⁷ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
²⁸ INFN-Sezione di GenovaVia Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova Italy
²⁹ Department of Physics “E. Pancini”, University Federico II, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
³⁰ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy
³¹ INFN section of Naples, Via Cinthia 6, 80126 Napoli, Italy
³² Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Rua das Estrelas, PT4150-762 Porto, Portugal
³³ Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo de Alegre, 4150-007 Porto, Portugal
³⁴ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
³⁵ INFN-Sezione di Torino, Via P. Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
³⁶ INAF-IASF Milano, Via Alfonso Corti 12, 20133 Milano, Italy
³⁷ Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain
³⁸ Port d’Informació Científica, Campus UAB, C. Albareda s/n, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
³⁹ Institute for Theoretical Particle Physics and Cosmology (TTK), RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
⁴⁰ Institute of Space Sciences (ICE, CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
⁴¹ Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Edifici RDIT, Campus UPC, 08860 Castelldefels, Barcelona, Spain
⁴² INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via Frascati 33, 00078 Monteporzio Catone, Italy
⁴³ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Augusto Righi” – Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 6/2, 40127 Bologna, Italy
⁴⁴ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, Calle Vía Láctea s/n, 38204 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁴⁵ Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK
⁴⁶ Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
⁴⁷ European Space Agency/ESRIN, Largo Galileo Galilei 1, 00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy
⁴⁸ Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IP2I Lyon, UMR 5822, Villeurbanne F-69100, France
⁴⁹ Institute of Physics, Laboratory of Astrophysics, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Observatoire de Sauverny, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
⁵⁰ UCB Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, IUF, IP2I Lyon, 4 rue Enrico Fermi, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
⁵¹ Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Edifício C8, Campo Grande, PT1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵² Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵³ Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, ch. d’Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
⁵⁴ INAF-Istituto di Astrofisica e Planetologia Spaziali, via del Fosso del Cavaliere, 100, 00100 Roma, Italy
⁵⁵ INFN-Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
⁵⁶ Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
⁵⁷ Space Science Data Center, Italian Space Agency, via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy
⁵⁸ Institut de Ciencies de l’Espai (IEEC-CSIC), Campus UAB, Carrer de Can Magrans, s/n Cerdanyola del Vallés, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
⁵⁹ FRACTAL S.L.N.E., calle Tulipán 2, Portal 13 1A, 28231 Las Rozas de Madrid, Spain
⁶⁰ INAF-Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Via dell’Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy
⁶¹ Universitäts-Sternwarte München, Fakultät für Physik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Scheinerstrasse 1, 81679 München, Germany
⁶² Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1029 Blindern 0315 Oslo, Norway
⁶³ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA
⁶⁴ Felix Hormuth Engineering, Goethestr. 17, 69181 Leimen, Germany
⁶⁵ Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
⁶⁶ Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
⁶⁷ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, UMR 7095, CNRS, and Sorbonne Université, 98 bis boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁶⁸ NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
⁶⁹ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
⁷⁰ Department of Physics and Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
⁷¹ Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS/IN2P3, CPPM, Marseille, France
⁷² Université de Genève, Département de Physique Théorique and Centre for Astroparticle Physics, 24 quai Ernest-Ansermet, CH-1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
⁷³ Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
⁷⁴ Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
⁷⁵ NOVA optical infrared instrumentation group at ASTRON, Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
⁷⁶ Centre de Calcul de l’IN2P3/CNRS, 21 avenue Pierre de Coubertin, 69627 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
⁷⁷ Dipartimento di Fisica “Aldo Pontremoli”, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁷⁸ INFN-Sezione di Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
⁷⁹ Universität Bonn, Argelander-Institut für Astronomie, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany
⁸⁰ INFN-Sezione di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro, 2 - c/o Dipartimento di Fisica, Edificio G. Marconi, 00185 Roma, Italy
⁸¹ Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
⁸² Department of Physics, Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, South Road DH1 3LE, UK
⁸³ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, 98bis Boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁸⁴ European Space Agency/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ Noordwijk, The Netherlands
⁸⁵ Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona), Spain
⁸⁶ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Aarhus, Ny Munkegade 120, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
⁸⁷ Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales – Centre spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
⁸⁸ Institute of Space Science, Str. Atomistilor, nr. 409 Măgurele, Ilfov 077125, Romania
⁸⁹ Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁹⁰ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “G. Galilei”, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
⁹¹ Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (IRAP), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, CNES, 14 Av. Edouard Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
⁹² Université St Joseph; Faculty of Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon
⁹³ Departamento de Física, FCFM, Universidad de Chile, Blanco Encalada, 2008 Santiago, Chile
⁹⁴ Satlantis, University Science Park, Sede Bld, 48940 Leioa-Bilbao, Spain
⁹⁵ Instituto de Astrofísica e Ciências do Espaço, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-018 Lisboa, Portugal
⁹⁶ Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Departamento de Electrónica y Tecnología de Computadoras, Plaza del Hospital 1, 30202 Cartagena, Spain
⁹⁷ Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 800 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
⁹⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli studi di Genova, and INFN-Sezione di Genova, via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
⁹⁹ Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
¹⁰⁰ INAF, Istituto di Radioastronomia, Via Piero Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
¹⁰¹ Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA), Loc. Lignan 39, I-11020 Nus (Aosta Valley), Italy
¹⁰² Junia, EPA department, 41 Bd Vauban, 59800 Lille, France
¹⁰³ ICSC – Centro Nazionale di Ricerca in High Performance Computing, Big Data e Quantum Computing, Via Magnanelli 2, Bologna, Italy
¹⁰⁴ Instituto de Física Teórica UAM-CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
¹⁰⁵ CERCA/ISO, Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland OH 44106, USA
¹⁰⁶ Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
¹⁰⁷ Laboratoire Univers et Théorie, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, Université Paris Cité, CNRS, 92190 Meudon, France
¹⁰⁸ Departamento de Física Fundamental. Universidad de Salamanca. Plaza de la Merced s/n., 37008 Salamanca, Spain
¹⁰⁹ Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Ferrara, Via Giuseppe Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
¹¹⁰ Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8583, Japan
¹¹¹ Dipartimento di Fisica - Sezione di Astronomia, Università di Trieste, Via Tiepolo 11, 34131 Trieste, Italy
¹¹² Minnesota Institute for Astrophysics, University of Minnesota, 116 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
¹¹³ Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii, 2680 Woodlawn Drive, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
¹¹⁴ Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
¹¹⁵ Department of Astronomy & Physics and Institute for Computational Astrophysics, Saint Mary’s University, 923 Robie Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3C3, Canada
¹¹⁶ Departamento Física Aplicada, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Campus Muralla del Mar, 30202 Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
¹¹⁷ Department of Physics, Oxford University, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK
¹¹⁸ CEA Saclay, DFR/IRFU, Service d’Astrophysique, Bât. 709, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
¹¹⁹ Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3FX, UK
¹²⁰ Department of Astronomy, University of Florida, Bryant Space Science Center, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
¹²¹ Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, PO Box 15400 Espoo FI-00 076, Finland
¹²² Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, c/ Via Lactea s/n, La Laguna E-38200, Spain. Departamento de Astrofísica de la Universidad de La Laguna, Avda. Francisco Sanchez, La Laguna E-38200, Spain
¹²³ Ruhr University Bochum, Faculty of Physics and Astronomy, Astronomical Institute (AIRUB), German Centre for Cosmological Lensing (GCCL), 44780 Bochum, Germany
¹²⁴ DARK, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 155, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
¹²⁵ Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, LPSC-IN2P3, 53, Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
¹²⁶ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Vesilinnantie 5, 20014 University of Turku, Turku, Finland
¹²⁷ Serco for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹²⁸ ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Particle Physics, Melbourne, Australia
¹²⁹ Centre for Astrophysics & Supercomputing, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia
¹³⁰ School of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
¹³¹ ICTP South American Institute for Fundamental Research, Instituto de Física Teórica, Universidade Estadual Paulista, São Paulo, Brazil
¹³² IRFU, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
¹³³ Oskar Klein Centre for Cosmoparticle Physics, Department of Physics, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden
¹³⁴ Astrophysics Group, Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
¹³⁵ INAF-Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
¹³⁶ Dipartimento di Fisica, Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185 Roma, Italy
¹³⁷ Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto, Rua das Estrelas, 4150-762 Porto, Portugal
¹³⁸ HE Space for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹³⁹ Aurora Technology for European Space Agency (ESA), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹⁴⁰ Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK
¹⁴¹ Department of Astrophysics, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
¹⁴² Theoretical astrophysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Box 515 751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
¹⁴³ School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Southampton, Highfield Campus, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
¹⁴⁴ Department of Physics, Royal Holloway, University of London TW20 0EX, UK
¹⁴⁵ Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking Surrey RH5 6NT, UK
¹⁴⁶ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
¹⁴⁷ Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Peyton Hall, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
¹⁴⁸ Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 128, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
¹⁴⁹ Center for Cosmology and Particle Physics, Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
¹⁵⁰ Center for Computational Astrophysics, Flatiron Institute, 162 5th Avenue, 10010 New York, NY, USA

^⋆ Corresponding author; hxb@mpe.mpg.de

Received: 28 July 2024
Accepted: 14 October 2024

Abstract

Galaxy proto-clusters are receiving increased interest since most of the processes shaping the structure of clusters of galaxies and their galaxy population happen at the early stages of their formation. The Euclid Survey will provide a unique opportunity to discover a large number of proto-clusters over a large fraction of the sky (14 500 deg²). In this paper, we explore the expected observational properties of proto-clusters in the Euclid Wide Survey by means of theoretical models and simulations. We provide an overview of the predicted proto-cluster extent, galaxy density profiles, mass-richness relations, abundance, and sky-filling as a function of redshift. Useful analytical approximations for the functions of these properties are provided. The focus is on the redshift range z = 1.5 − 4. In particular we discuss the density contrast with which proto-clusters can be observed against the background in the galaxy distribution if photometric galaxy redshifts are used as supplied by the ESA Euclid mission together with the ground-based photometric surveys. We show that the obtainable detection significance is sufficient to find large numbers of interesting proto-cluster candidates. For quantitative studies, additional spectroscopic follow-up is required to confirm the proto-clusters and establish their richness.