Radio survey of the stellar population in the infrared dark cloud G14.225-0.506^★

¹ Departament de Física Quàntica i Astrofísica (FQA), Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Martí i Franquès 1, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
e-mail: ediazm@fqa.ub.edu
² Institut de Ciències del Cosmos (ICCUB), Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
³ Institut de Ciències de l’Espai (ICE, CSIC), Can Magrans s/n, 08193 Cerdanyola del Vallès, Catalonia, Spain
⁴ Institut de Física d’Altes Energies (IFAE), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), 08193 Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
⁵ Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Gran Capità 2–4, 08034, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
⁶ Instituto de Radioastronomía y Astrofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro 8701, Ex-Hda. San José de la Huerta, 58089 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
⁷ Department of Physics and Astronomy, California State Polytechnic University, 3801 West Temple Avenue, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
⁸ Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris-Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
⁹ Department of Physics, National Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 70, Lien-Hai Road, Kaohsiung City 80424, Taiwan, ROC
¹⁰ Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Received: 27 September 2023
Accepted: 18 November 2023

Abstract

Context. The infrared dark cloud (IRDC) G14.225-0.506 is part of the extended and massive molecular cloud located to the southwest of the H II region M17. The cloud is associated with a network of filaments, which result in two different dense hubs, as well as with several signposts of star formation activity and a rich population of protostars and young stellar objects (YSOs).

Aims. The aim of this work is to study the centimeter continuum emission in order to characterize the stellar population in both regions, as well as to study the evolutionary sequence across the IRDC G14.225-0.506.

Methods. We performed deep (~ 1.5–3 μJy) radio continuum observations at 6 and 3.6 cm toward the IRDC G14.225-0.506 using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) in its most extended A configuration (~0.3″). Data at both C and X bands were imaged using the same (u,v) range in order to derive spectral indices. We have also made use of observations taken during different days to study the presence of variability at short timescales toward the detected sources.

Results. We detected a total of 66 sources, 32 in the northern region G14.2-N and 34 in the southern region G14.2-S. Ten of the sources are found to be variable, with three located in G14.2-N and seven in G14.2-S. Based on their spectral index, the emission in G14.2-N is mainly dominated by nonthermal sources while G14.2-S contains more thermal emitters. Approximately 75% of the sources present a counterpart at other wavelengths. When considering the inner 0.4 pc region around the center of each hub, the number of infrared (IR) sources in G14.2-N is larger than in G14.2-S by a factor of 4. We also studied the relation between the radio luminosity and the bolometric luminosity, finding that the thermal emission of the studied sources is compatible with thermal radio jets. For our sources with X-ray counterparts, the nonthermal emitters follow a Güdel-Benz relation with κ = 0.03, as previously suggested for other similar regions.

Conclusions. We found similar levels of fragmentation between G14.2-N and G14.2-S, suggesting that both regions are most likely twin hubs. The nonthermal emission found in the less evolved objects, mainly coming from G14.2-N, suggests that G14.2-N may be composed of more massive YSOs as well as being in a more advanced evolutionary stage, consistent with the “filament-halo” gradient in age and mass from previous works. Overall, our results confirm a wider evolutionary sequence from the southwest to northeast starting in G14.2-S as the youngest part, followed by G14.2-N, and ending with the most evolved region M17.