Planck 2013 results. XI. All-sky model of thermal dust emission

¹ APC, AstroParticule etCosmologie, Université Paris Diderot, CNRS/IN2P3, CEA/lrfu, Observatoire de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 10 rue Alice Domon et Léonie Duquet, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
² Aalto University Metsähovi Radio Observatory and Dept of Radio Science and Engineering, PO Box 13000, 00076 AALTO, Finland
³ African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, , 6-8 Melrose Road, Muizenberg, Cape Town, South Africa
⁴ Agenzia Spaziale Italiana Science Data Center, via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Roma, Italy
⁵ Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, Viale Liegi 26, Roma, Italy
⁶ Astrophysics Group, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, J J Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK
⁷ Astrophysics & Cosmology Research Unit, School of Mathematics, Statistics & Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, 4000 Durban, South Africa
⁸ CITA, University of Toronto, 60 St. George St., Toronto, ON M5S 3H8, Canada
⁹ CNRS, IRAP, 9 Av. colonel Roche, BP 44346, 31028 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
¹⁰ California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
¹¹ Centre for Theoretical Cosmology, DAMTP, University of Cambridge, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK
¹² Centro de Estudios de Física del Cosmos de Aragón (CEFCA), Plaza San Juan 1, planta 2, 44001 Teruel, Spain
¹³ Computational Cosmology Center, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
¹⁴ Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
¹⁵ DSM/Irfu/SPP, CEA-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
¹⁶ DTU Space, National Space Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Elektrovej 327, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
¹⁷ Département de Physique Théorique, Université de Genève, 24 Quai E. Ansermet, 1211 Genève 4, Switzerland
¹⁸ Département de physique, de génie physique et d’optique, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
¹⁹ Departamento de Física Fundamental, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
²⁰ Departamento de Física, Universidad de Oviedo, , Avda. Calvo Sotelo s/n, Oviedo, Spain
²¹ Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Toronto, 50 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
²² Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
²³ Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
²⁴ Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of British Columbia, 6224 Agricultural Road, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
²⁵ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dana and David Dornsife College of Letter, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, , Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
²⁶ Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
²⁷ Department of Physics, Florida State University, , Keen Physics Building, 77 Chieftan Way, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
²⁸ Department of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2a, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
²⁹ Department of Physics, Princeton University, , Princeton, New Jersey, USA
³⁰ Department of Physics, University of California, , One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, USA
³¹ Department of Physics, University of California, , Santa Barbara, California, USA
³² Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1110 West Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, USA
³³ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia G. Galilei, Università degli Studi di Padova, via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy
³⁴ Dipartimento di Fisica e Scienze della Terra, Università di Ferrara, via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
³⁵ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università La Sapienza, , P.le A. Moro 2, Roma, Italy
³⁶ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria, 16, Milano, Italy
³⁷ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Trieste, via A. Valerio 2, Trieste, Italy
³⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Roma Tor Vergata, via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, Roma, Italy
³⁹ Discovery Center, Niels Bohr Institute, , Blegdamsvej 17, Copenhagen, Denmark
⁴⁰ Dpto. Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), , 38206, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁴¹ European Space Agency, ESAC, Planck Science Office, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanización Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
⁴² European Space Agency, ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZNoordwijk, The Netherlands
⁴³ Finnish Centre for Astronomy with ESO (FINCA), University of Turku, Väisäläntie 20, 21500 Piikkiö, Finland
⁴⁴ Helsinki Institute of Physics, Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
⁴⁵ INAF–Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, via S. Sofia 78, Catania, Italy
⁴⁶ INAF–Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Vicolo dell’ Osservatorio 5, Padova, Italy
⁴⁷ INAF–Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, via di Frascati 33, Monte Porzio Catone, Italy
⁴⁸ INAF–Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste, via G.B. Tiepolo 11, Trieste, Italy
⁴⁹ INAF Istituto di Radioastronomia, via P. Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁵⁰ INAF/IASF Bologna, via Gobetti 101, Bologna, Italy
⁵¹ INAF/IASF Milano, via E. Bassini 15, Milano, Italy
⁵² INFN, Sezione di Bologna, via Irnerio 46, 40126, Bologna, Italy
⁵³ INFN, Sezione di Roma 1, Università di Roma Sapienza, Piazzale Aldo Moro 2, 00185, Roma, Italy
⁵⁴ INFN/National Institute for Nuclear Physics, , via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
⁵⁵ IPAG: Institut de Planétologie et d’Astrophysique de Grenoble, Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble 1/CNRS-INSU, UMR 5274, , 38041 Grenoble, France
⁵⁶ ISDC Data Centre for Astrophysics, University of Geneva, ch. d’Ecogia 16, Versoix, Switzerland
⁵⁷ IUCAA, Post Bag 4, Ganeshkhind, Pune University Campus, 411 007 Pune, India
⁵⁸ Imperial College London, Astrophysics group, Blackett Laboratory, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
⁵⁹ Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
⁶⁰ Institut Néel, CNRS, Université Joseph Fourier Grenoble I, 25 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble, France
⁶¹ Institut Universitaire de France, 103 Bd Saint-Michel, 75005, Paris, France
⁶² Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS (UMR8617) Université Paris-Sud 11, Bâtiment 121, Orsay, France
⁶³ Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, CNRS (UMR7095), , 98bis Bd Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁶⁴ Institute for Space Sciences, Bucharest-Magurale, Romania
⁶⁵ Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
⁶⁶ Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, , Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK
⁶⁷ Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, , Blindern, Oslo, Norway
⁶⁸ Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, C/Vía Láctea s/n, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
⁶⁹ Instituto de Física de Cantabria (CSIC-Universidad de Cantabria), Avda. de los Castros s/n, Santander, Spain
⁷⁰ Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, California, USA
⁷¹ Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics, Alan Turing Building, School of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
⁷² Kavli Institute for Cosmology Cambridge, , Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0HA, UK
⁷³ LAL, Université Paris-Sud, CNRS/IN2P3, , Orsay, France
⁷⁴ LERMA, CNRS, Observatoire de Paris, 61 Avenue de l’Observatoire, Paris, France
⁷⁵ Laboratoire AIM, IRFU/Service d’Astrophysique – CEA/DSM – CNRS – Université Paris Diderot, Bât. 709, CEA-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
⁷⁶ Laboratoire Traitement et Communication de l’Information, CNRS (UMR 5141) and Télécom ParisTech, 46 rue Barrault, 75634 Paris Cedex 13, France
⁷⁷ Laboratoire de Physique Subatomique et de Cosmologie, Université Joseph Fourier Grenoble I, CNRS/IN2P3, Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble, 53 rue des Martyrs, 38026 Grenoble Cedex, France
⁷⁸ Laboratoire de Physique Théorique, Université Paris-Sud 11 & CNRS, Bâtiment 210, 91405 Orsay, France
⁷⁹ Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, , Berkeley, California, USA
⁸⁰ Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 1, 85741 Garching, Germany
⁸¹ McGill Physics, Ernest Rutherford Physics Building, McGill University, 3600 rue University, Montréal, QC, H3A 2T8, Canada
⁸² MilliLab, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Tietotie 3, Espoo, Finland
⁸³ National University of Ireland, Department of Experimental Physics, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
⁸⁴ Niels Bohr Institute, Blegdamsvej 17, Copenhagen, Denmark
⁸⁵ Observational Cosmology, Mail Stop 367-17, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
⁸⁶ Optical Science Laboratory, University College London, Gower Street, London, UK
⁸⁷ Princeton University Observatory, Peyton Hall, Princeton, NJ 08544-1001, USA
⁸⁸ SB-ITP-LPPC, EPFL, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
⁸⁹ SISSA, Astrophysics Sector, via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
⁹⁰ School of Physics and Astronomy, Cardiff University, , Queens Buildings, The Parade, Cardiff, CF24 3AA, UK
⁹¹ Space Research Institute (IKI), Russian Academy of Sciences, Profsoyuznaya Str, 84/32, 117997 Moscow, Russia
⁹² Space Sciences Laboratory, University of California, , Berkeley, California, USA
⁹³ Special Astrophysical Observatory, Russian Academy of Sciences, Nizhnij Arkhyz, Zelenchukskiy region, 369167 Karachai-Cherkessian Republic, Russia
⁹⁴ Stanford University, Dept of Physics, Varian Physics Bldg, 382 via Pueblo Mall, Stanford, California, USA
⁹⁵ Sub-Department of Astrophysics, University of Oxford, Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3RH, UK
⁹⁶ Theory Division, PH-TH, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
⁹⁷ UPMC Univ. Paris 06, UMR7095, 98bis Boulevard Arago, 75014 Paris, France
⁹⁸ Université de Toulouse, UPS-OMP, IRAP, 31028 Toulouse Cedex 4, France
⁹⁹ Universities Space Research Association, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, MS 232-11, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
¹⁰⁰ University of Granada, Departamento de Física Teórica y del Cosmos, Facultad de Ciencias, Granada, Spain
¹⁰¹ Warsaw University Observatory, Aleje Ujazdowskie 4, 00-478 Warszawa, Poland

Received: 4 December 2013
Accepted: 4 September 2014

Abstract

This paper presents an all-sky model of dust emission from the Planck 353, 545, and 857 GHz, and IRAS 100 μm data. Using a modified blackbody fit to the data we present all-sky maps of the dust optical depth, temperature, and spectral index over the 353–3000 GHz range. This model is a good representation of the IRAS and Planck data at 5′ between 353 and 3000 GHz (850 and 100 μm). It shows variations of the order of 30% compared with the widely-used model of Finkbeiner, Davis, and Schlegel. The Planck data allow us to estimate the dust temperature uniformly over the whole sky, down to an angular resolution of 5′, providing an improved estimate of the dust optical depth compared to previous all-sky dust model, especially in high-contrast molecular regions where the dust temperature varies strongly at small scales in response to dust evolution, extinction, and/or local production of heating photons. An increase of the dust opacity at 353 GHz, τ₃₅₃/N_H, from the diffuse to the denser interstellar medium (ISM) is reported. It is associated with a decrease in the observed dust temperature, T_obs, that could be due at least in part to the increased dust opacity. We also report an excess of dust emission at H i column densities lower than 10²⁰ cm^-2 that could be the signature of dust in the warm ionized medium. In the diffuse ISM at high Galactic latitude, we report an anticorrelation between τ₃₅₃/N_H and T_obs while the dust specific luminosity, i.e., the total dust emission integrated over frequency (the radiance) per hydrogen atom, stays about constant, confirming one of the Planck Early Results obtained on selected fields. This effect is compatible with the view that, in the diffuse ISM, T_obs responds to spatial variations of the dust opacity, due to variations of dust properties, in addition to (small) variations of the radiation field strength. The implication is that in the diffuse high-latitude ISM τ₃₅₃ is not as reliable a tracer of dust column density as we conclude it is in molecular clouds where the correlation of τ₃₅₃ with dust extinction estimated using colour excess measurements on stars is strong. To estimate Galactic E(B − V) in extragalactic fields at high latitude we develop a new method based on the thermal dust radiance, instead of the dust optical depth, calibrated to E(B − V) using reddening measurements of quasars deduced from Sloan Digital Sky Survey data.