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Fig. 11

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Minimum masses of accreted material within white dwarf atmospheres as a function of temperature. The left panel shows the minimum mass of planetary material in the mixing zones of H- and He-dominated white dwarfs, represented by blue hexagons and orange pentagons, respectively. For He-dominated white dwarfs, the mixing zone is defined as the convection zone, whereas for warmer H-dominated white dwarfs, it is defined as the region above optical depth τR ≲ 5. Examples of a variety of Solar System objects are included for comparison. The right panel expresses the evolution of the mixing zone mass with decreasing Teff and increasing cooling age. The much lower mixing zone masses of the two He-dominated white dwarfs with Teff > 15 000 K (WD1536+520 (Farihi et al. 2016) and WD J2047–1259 (Hoskin et al. 2020)) arise from the large amounts of trace H (log(H/He) ≃−1 to −2) in their atmospheres.

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