Fig. 5

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Conditions of ocean formation for initially hot and steamy 1 R⊕ planets (with a 10 bar H2O + 1 bar N2 atmosphere) orbiting around different types of stars: TRAPPIST-1 (T★ ~ 2600 K), Proxima Centauri (T★ ~ 3050 K), an M3 star (T★ ~ 3400 K), a K5 star (T★ ~ 4400 K) and the Sun (T★ ~ 5780 K). The associated simulations names are T1-1 to 8, Pcen-1 to 7, M3-1 to 7, K5-1 to 6 and SUN-1 to 6, respectively. The figure depicts the evolution of surface temperature (top) and bond albedo (bottom) as a function of the incoming stellar flux. We made the assumption of a synchronous rotation for all the simulations, except for those of the Sun (where we took the results directly from Turbet et al. (2021) in which rotation period is equal to 1 Earth day, orbital period is equal to 365 Earth days, and obliquity is equal to 23.5°). Horizontal dashed lines indicate the bond albedos of planets in a runaway greenhouse effect, obtained from 1D cloud-free calculations (Kopparapu et al. 2013). The dashed arrows indicate the ISR threshold limit at which the radiative TOA budget becomes imbalanced, leading to a runaway water condensation.
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