Fig. 1

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Water cloud column (top), albedo (middle), and thermal emission to space (bottom) horizontal maps, for an initially hot and steamy 2 R⊕ planet (with a 10 bar H2O + 1 bar N2 atmosphere) synchronously rotating (fixed rotation period of 60 Earth days) around an M3 star. The simulations shown here were forced to ISR (defined here and throughout the manuscript as the global mean average value, i.e., a factor of 4 lower than the stellar flux at the substellar point) ranging from 500 W m−2 or 1.47 F⊕ (right) down to 300 W m−2 or 0.88 F⊕ (left), and the outputs were averaged over 250 Earth days. The associated simulations names are M3-YANG-1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. For reference, insolation is 340.5 W m−2 on present-day Earth.
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