Influence of stochastic effects on mock cluster inference results. Left column: clusters with log₁₀(M/M_⊙) = 5.0 and varied extinction and age. Right column: clusters with A_V = 0.5 mag and varied mass and age. Cluster sizes are fixed at log₁₀(r_h/arcsec) = −0.6 for all cases. Top row: results of inference when stellar IMF sampling and spatial positions are varied while holding the cluster parameters constant. Middle row: results of inference when background images are varied while using the same cluster image. The cyan circles correspond to the true values of parameters. The grayscale colormaps are raw CNN outputs (activations over the parameter space) for one specific mock cluster case, while magenta circles show 100 single-point estimates obtained for different random cases. Bottom row: visualizations of the clusters with fixed background in the same format as in Fig. 4.