Open Access
Table 3
Average impact characteristics for 54 simulations with three different depths, two material types, and three orientations at impact for each of the five different angles of approach considered in our simulations.
| Angle | Traveled | Time between |  |
 |
 |
Collision | Maximum | Incoming angle | Speed at |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| distance | impacts | duration | penetration depth | at second impact | second impact | ||||
| 0° | 1.2 m | 84 s | 6% | 1.9% | 359% | 11.0 s | 9.4 cm | 32° | 1.2 cm s−1 |
| 15° | 2.7 m | 86 s | 11% | 1.1% | 142% | 10.6 s | 8.5 cm | 48° | 1.6 cm s−1 |
| 30° | 6.0 m | 153 s | 17% | 3.0% | 54% | 9.5 s | 7.9 cm | 54° | 2.9 cm s−1 |
| 45° | 10.1 m | 231 s | 26% | 5.0% | 58% | 6.1 s | 5.9 cm | 56° | 4.9 cm s−1 |
| 60° | 19.7 m | 295 s | 41% | 7.4% | 45% | 3.8 s | 5.2 cm | 61° | 7.4 cm s−1 |
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