Fig. 4

Temporal evolution of semimajor axes a(t), periastron distances qp and apoastron distances Qa of four embryos with the initial mass 3 ME in three distinct simulation cases: Case I neglecting the pebble disk (top), Case II including the pebble disk but only allowing for the mass growth of embryos by pebble accretion (middle) and finally Case III, considering also the effect of accretion heating (bottom). Embryos are numbered from 1 to 4. Additional arrows and labels indicate mergers or coorbital pairs detected in the simulations, with corresponding embryo masses which can grow by pebble accretion (Cases II and III) or merging. Striking differences are observed in Case III as the migration rates are modified by the heating torque, orbits become moderately eccentric shortly after the simulation starts and the evolution is more violent compared to Cases I and II.
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