Proper motion study of the 6.7 GHz methanol maser rings

I. A sample of sources with little variation

¹ Institute of Astronomy, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Grudziadzka 5, 87-100 Torun, Poland
e-mail: annan@astro.umk.pl
² INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari, via della Scienza 5, 09047 Selargius, Italy
³ INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
⁴ Joint Institute for VLBI ERIC (JIVE), Oude Hoogeveensedijk 4, 7991 PD Dwingeloo, The Netherlands
⁵ Sterrewacht Leiden, Leiden University, Postbus 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
⁶ University of New Mexico, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA

Received: 5 February 2024
Accepted: 28 March 2024

Abstract

Context. Methanol masers at 6.7 GHz are well-known signposts of high-mass star-forming regions. Due to their high brightness, they enable us to derive the three-dimensional gas kinematics near protostars and young stars.

Aims. We aim to understand the origin of the ring-like structures outlined by methanol maser emission in a number of sources. This emission could be, a priori, spatially associated with an outflow and/or disc around a high-mass protostar. In cases of expansion or rotation, maser proper motions should be, for instance, diverging from the ring centre or perpendicular to the ring radius.

Methods. Using sensitive, three-epoch observations spanning over 8 yr with the European VLBI Network, we have started the most direct investigations of maser rings using very accurate proper motion measurements with uncertainties below ~1 km s⁻¹.

Results. We present full results for the five targets of our sample, G23.207−00.377, G23.389+00.185, G28.817+00.365, G31.047+00.356, and G31.581+00.077, where proper motions show similar characteristics; maser cloudlets do not move inwards towards the centre of the rings but rather outwards. We also include the most circular source, G23.657−00.127, in the discussion as a reference. The magnitude of maser proper motions ranges from a maximum of about 13 km s⁻¹ to 0.5 km s⁻¹. In two of the five sources with a high number of maser spots (>100), namely G23.207⁻00.377 and G23.389+00.185, we show that the size of the best elliptical model, fitted to the distribution of persistent masers, increases in time in a manner similar to the case of G23.657⁻00.127. Moreover, we checked the separations between the pairs of spots from distinct regions, and we were able to assess that G28.817+00.365 and G31.047+00.356 can be interpreted as showing expanding motions. We analysed the profiles of single maser cloudlets and studied their variability. Contrary to single-dish studies, the interferometric data indicate variability of the emission of single-masing cloudlets.

Conclusions. In five of the six targets, namely, G23.207−00.377, G23.389+00.185, G23.657-00.127, G28.817+00.365, and G31.047+00.356, expansion motions prevail. Only in the case of G31.581+00.077 can a scenario of disc-like rotation not be excluded. Complementary observations of thermal tracers as well as searching for ultra-compact H II regions in the same sources are needed. Although the overall morphology of the maser emission has remained stable, the intensities of individual maser cloudlets varied from epoch to epoch, suggesting internal instabilities.