Sulfur gas-phase abundance in dense cores^★

¹ Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, France
e-mail: pierre.hily-blant@univ-grenoble-alpes.fr
² Institut Universitaire de France, France
³ Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, 91405 Orsay, France
⁴ Observatoire de Paris, PSL university, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, LERMA, 75014 Paris, France
⁵ LOMC-UMR 6294, CNRS-Université du Havre, 25 rue Philippe Lebon, BP, 1123-76 063 Le Havre cedex, France

Received: 11 August 2019
Accepted: 22 November 2021

Abstract

The abundance of volatile sulfur in dense clouds is long-standing problem in studies of the physics and chemistry of star-forming regions. Sulfur is an important species because its low ionization potential may possibly make it an important charge carrier. The observed sulfur-bearing species in the gas-phase of dense clouds represent only a minor fraction of the cosmic sulfur abundance, which has been interpreted as a signature of sulfur depletion into ices at the surface of dust grains. However, atomic sulfur, which could be the main gas-phase carrier, cannot be observed directly in cold cores. We present measurements of the nitrogen sulfide (NS) radical toward four dense cores performed with the IRAM-30m telescope. Analytical chemical considerations and chemical models over a wide parameter space show that the NS:N₂H⁺ abundance ratio provides a direct constraint on the abundance of gas-phase atomic sulfur. Toward early-type cores, we find that n(S)∕n_H is close, or even equal, to the cosmic abundance of sulfur, 14 × 10⁻⁶, demonstrating that sulfur is not depleted and is atomic, which is in agreement with chemical models. More chemically evolved cores show sulfur depletion by factors up to 100 in their densest parts. In L1544, atomic sulfur depletion is shown to increase with increasing density. Future observations are needed to discover the solid-phase carrier of sulfur. The initial steps of the collapse of pre-stellar cores in the high sulfur abundance regime also need to be explored from their chemical and dynamical perspectives.