Gaia Data Release 2

Observations of solar system objects

¹ Université Côte d’Azur, Observatoire de la Côte d’Azur, CNRS, Laboratoire Lagrange, Bd de l’Observatoire, CS 34229, 06304 Nice Cedex 4, France
² IMCCE, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Univ. Lille, 77 av. Denfert-Rochereau, 75014 Paris, France
³ INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, via Osservatorio 20, 10025 Pino Torinese (TO), Italy
⁴ INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo Enrico Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy
⁵ University of Helsinki, Department of Physics, P.O. Box 64, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
⁶ Finnish Geospatial Research Institute FGI, Geodeetinrinne 2, 02430 Masala, Finland
⁷ Royal Observatory of Belgium, Ringlaan 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium
⁸ Institut UTINAM UMR6213, CNRS, OSUTHETA Franche-Comté Bourgogne, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25000 Besançon, France
⁹ Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK
¹⁰ CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
¹¹ Department of Computer Science, Electrical and Space Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Box 848, S-981 28 Kiruna, Sweden
¹² European Space Astronomy Centre (ESA/ESAC), Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹³ Institut de Ciències del Cosmos, Universitat de Barcelona (IEEC-UB),Martí i Franquès 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
¹⁴ AKKA for CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
¹⁵ Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
¹⁶ INAF - Osservatorio astronomico di Padova, Vicolo Osservatorio 5, 35122 Padova, Italy
¹⁷ Science Support Office, Directorate of Science, European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESA/ESTEC), Keplerlaan 1, 2201AZ, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
¹⁸ GEPI, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, 5 Place Jules Janssen, 92190 Meudon, France
¹⁹ Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, 38000 Grenoble, France
²⁰ Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, K o¨nigstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
²¹ Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, M o¨nchhofstr. 12-14, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
²² Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, Chemin des Maillettes 51, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
²³ Mission Operations Division, Operations Department, Directorate of Science, European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESA/ESTEC), Keplerlaan 1, 2201 AZ, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
²⁴ Lohrmann Observatory, Technische Universität Dresden, Mommsenstraße 13, 01062 Dresden, Germany
²⁵ Lund Observatory, Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Lund University, Box 43, 22100 Lund, Sweden
²⁶ Institut d’Astronomie et d’Astrophysique, Université Libre de Bruxelles CP 226, Boulevard du Triomphe, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
²⁷ F.R.S.-FNRS, Rue d’Egmont 5, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
²⁸ Telespazio Vega UK Ltd for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
²⁹ Laboratoire d’astrophysique de Bordeaux, Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, B18N, allée Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 33615 Pessac, France
³⁰ Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Dorking, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK
³¹ INAF - Osservatorio di Astrofisica e Scienza dello Spazio di Bologna, via Piero Gobetti 93/3, 40129 Bologna, Italy
³² Serco Gestión de Negocios for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
³³ ALTEC S.p.A, Corso Marche, 79, 10146 Torino, Italy
³⁴ Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, Chemin d’Ecogia 16, 1290 Versoix, Switzerland
³⁵ Gaia DPAC Project Office, ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
³⁶ SYRTE, Observatoire de Paris, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, LNE, 61 avenue de l?Observatoire 75014 Paris, France
³⁷ National Observatory of Athens, I. Metaxa and Vas. Pavlou, Palaia Penteli, 15236 Athens, Greece
³⁸ Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK
³⁹ Instituut voor Sterrenkunde, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
⁴⁰ Institut d’Astrophysique et de Géophysique, Université de Liège, 19c, Allée du 6 Août, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
⁴¹ ATG Europe for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁴² Área de Lenguajes y Sistemas Informáticos, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Ctra. de Utrera, km 1. 41013, Sevilla, Spain
⁴³ ETSE Telecomunicación, Universidade de Vigo, Campus Lagoas-Marcosende, 36310 Vigo, Galicia, Spain
⁴⁴ Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, 950 N. Cherry Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
⁴⁵ Observatoire Astronomique de Strasbourg, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, UMR 7550, 11 rue de l’Université, 67000 Strasbourg, France
⁴⁶ Kavli Institute for Cosmology, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambride CB3 0HA, UK
⁴⁷ Aurora Technology for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁴⁸ Laboratoire Univers et Particules de Montpellier, Université Montpellier, Place Eugène Bataillon, CC72, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
⁴⁹ Department of Physics and Astronomy, Division of Astronomy and Space Physics, Uppsala University, Box 516, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden
⁵⁰ CENTRA, Universidade de Lisboa, FCUL, Campo Grande, Edif. C8, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
⁵¹ Università di Catania, Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Sezione Astrofisica, Via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy
⁵² INAF - Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, via S. Sofia 78, 95123 Catania, Italy
⁵³ University of Vienna, Department of Astrophysics, Türkenschanzstraße 17, A1180 Vienna, Austria
⁵⁴ CITIC – Department of Computer Science, University of A Coruña, Campus de Elviña s/n, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
⁵⁵ CITIC – Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of A Coruña, Campus de Elviña s/n, 15071, A Coruña, Spain
⁵⁶ INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Via di Frascati 33, 00078 Monte Porzio Catone (Roma), Italy
⁵⁷ Space Science Data Center - ASI, Via del Politecnico SNC, 00133 Roma, Italy
⁵⁸ Isdefe for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁵⁹ STFC, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell, Didcot, OX11 0QX, UK
⁶⁰ Dpto. de Inteligencia Artificial, UNED, c/ Juan del Rosal 16, 28040 Madrid, Spain
⁶¹ Elecnor Deimos Space for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁶² Thales Services for CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
⁶³ Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University, P.O.Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
⁶⁴ European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Str. 2, 85748 Garching, Germany
⁶⁵ ON/MCTI-BR, Rua Gal. José Cristino 77, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 20921-400, RJ, Brazil
⁶⁶ OV/UFRJ-BR, Ladeira Pedro Antônio 43, Rio de Janeiro, CEP 20080-090, RJ, Brazil
⁶⁷ Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution for Science, 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW, Washington, DC 20015-1305, USA
⁶⁸ Università di Torino, Dipartimento di Fisica, via Pietro Giuria 1, 10125 Torino, Italy
⁶⁹ Departamento de Astrofísica, Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), ESA-ESAC. Camino Bajo del Castillo s/n. 28692 Villanueva de la Cañada, Madrid, Spain
⁷⁰ Leicester Institute of Space and Earth Observation and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
⁷¹ Departamento de Estadística, Universidad de Cádiz, Calle República Árabe Saharawi s/n. 11510, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
⁷² Astronomical Institute Bern University, Sidlerstrasse 5, 3012 Bern, Switzerland (present address)
⁷³ EURIX SRL, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II 61, 10128, Torino, Italy
⁷⁴ Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
⁷⁵ HE Space Operations BV for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁷⁶ Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Landleven 12, 9747 AD Groningen, The Netherlands
⁷⁷ SISSA - Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
⁷⁸ University of Turin, Department of Computer Sciences, Corso Svizzera 185, 10149 Torino, Italy
⁷⁹ SRON, Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Sorbonnelaan 2, 3584CA, Utrecht, The Netherlands
⁸⁰ Dpto. de Matemática Aplicada y Ciencias de la Computación, Univ. de Cantabria, ETS Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Avda. de los Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain
⁸¹ Unidad de Astronomía, Universidad de Antofagasta, Avenida Angamos 601, Antofagasta 1270300, Chile
⁸² CRAAG - Centre de Recherche en Astronomie, Astrophysique et Géophysique, Route de l’Observatoire Bp 63 Bouzareah 16340 Algiers, Algeria
⁸³ University of Antwerp, Onderzoeksgroep Toegepaste Wiskunde, Middelheimlaan 1, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
⁸⁴ INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico d’Abruzzo, Via Mentore Maggini, 64100 Teramo, Italy
⁸⁵ Instituto de Astronomia, Geofìsica e Ciências Atmosféricas, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, 1226, Cidade Universitaria, 05508-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
⁸⁶ Department of Astrophysics, Astronomy and Mechanics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Zografos, 15783 Athens, Greece
⁸⁷ Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
⁸⁸ RHEA for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
⁸⁹ ATOS for CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
⁹⁰ School of Physics and Astronomy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
⁹¹ UNINOVA - CTS, Campus FCT-UNL, Monte da Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
⁹² School of Physics, O’Brien Centre for Science North, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
⁹³ Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia, Università di Bologna, Via Piero Gobetti 93/2, 40129 Bologna, Italy
⁹⁴ Barcelona Supercomputing Center - Centro Nacional de Supercomputación, c/ Jordi Girona 29, Ed. Nexus II, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
⁹⁵ Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, High Energy Group, Gießenbachstraße, 85741 Garching, Germany
⁹⁶ Astronomical Observatory Institute, Faculty of Physics, Adam Mickiewicz University, Słoneczna 36, 60-286 Poznań, Poland
⁹⁷ Konkoly Observatory, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Konkoly Thege Miklós út 15-17, 1121 Budapest, Hungary
⁹⁸ E o¨tv o¨s Loránd University, Egyetem tér 1-3, H-1053 Budapest, Hungary
⁹⁹ American Community Schools of Athens, 129 Aghias Paraskevis Ave. & Kazantzaki Street, Halandri, 15234 Athens, Greece
¹⁰⁰ Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, Jadranska ulica 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
¹⁰¹ Villanova University, Department of Astrophysics and Planetary Science, 800 E Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085, USA
¹⁰² Physics Department, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
¹⁰³ McWilliams Center for Cosmology, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
¹⁰⁴ Astronomical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Fričova 298, 25165 Ondřejov, Czech Republic
¹⁰⁵ Telespazio for CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
¹⁰⁶ Institut de Physique de Rennes, Université de Rennes 1, 35042 Rennes, France
¹⁰⁷ INAF - Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, Via Moiariello 16, 80131, Napoli, Italy
¹⁰⁸ Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 80 Nandan Rd, 200030 Shanghai, China
¹⁰⁹ School of Astronomy and Space Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
¹¹⁰ Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Juliane Maries Vej 30, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
¹¹¹ DXC Technology, Retortvej 8, 2500 Valby, Denmark
¹¹² Las Cumbres Observatory, 6740 Cortona Drive Suite 102, Goleta, CA 93117, USA
¹¹³ Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK
¹¹⁴ Baja Observatory of University of Szeged, Szegedi út III/70, 6500 Baja, Hungary
¹¹⁵ Laboratoire AIM, IRFU/Service d’Astrophysique - CEA/DSM - CNRS - Université Paris Diderot, Bât 709, CEA-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
¹¹⁶ Warsaw University Observatory, Al. Ujazdowskie 4, 00-478 Warszawa, Poland
¹¹⁷ Institute of Theoretical Physics, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
¹¹⁸ Vitrociset Belgium for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹¹⁹ HE Space Operations BV for ESA/ESTEC, Keplerlaan 1, 2201AZ, Noordwijk, The Netherlands
¹²⁰ Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
¹²¹ QUASAR Science Resources for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹²² Fork Research, Rua do Cruzado Osberno, Lt. 1, 9 esq., Lisboa, Portugal
¹²³ APAVE SUDEUROPE SAS for CNES Centre Spatial de Toulouse, 18 avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
¹²⁴ Nordic Optical Telescope, Rambla José Ana Fernández Pérez 7, 38711 Breña Baja, Spain
¹²⁵ Spanish Virtual Observatory, Spain
¹²⁶ Fundación Galileo Galilei - INAF, Rambla José Ana Fernández Pérez 7, 38712 Breña Baja, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
¹²⁷ INSA for ESA/ESAC, Camino bajo del Castillo, s/n, Urbanizacion Villafranca del Castillo, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28692 Madrid, Spain
¹²⁸ Dpto. Arquitectura de Computadores y Automática, Facultad de Informática, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, C/ Prof. José García Santesmases s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
¹²⁹ H H Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK
¹³⁰ Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Gran Capita 2-4, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
¹³¹ Applied Physics Department, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
¹³² Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Aarhus University, Department of Physics and Astronomy, 120 Ny Munkegade, Building 1520, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
¹³³ Argelander-Institut f ur¨ Astronomie, Universität Bonn, Auf dem Hügel 71, 53121 Bonn, Germany
¹³⁴ Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2611 Australia
¹³⁵ Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 6 et CNRS, UMR 7095, Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, 98 bis bd. Arago, 75014 Paris, France
¹³⁶ Department of Geosciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel

Received: 24 February 2018
Accepted: 10 April 2018

Abstract

Context. The Gaia spacecraft of the European Space Agency (ESA) has been securing observations of solar system objects (SSOs) since the beginning of its operations. Data Release 2 (DR2) contains the observations of a selected sample of 14,099 SSOs. These asteroids have been already identified and have been numbered by the Minor Planet Center repository. Positions are provided for each Gaia observation at CCD level. As additional information, complementary to astrometry, the apparent brightness of SSOs in the unfiltered G band is also provided for selected observations.

Aims. We explain the processing of SSO data, and describe the criteria we used to select the sample published in Gaia DR2. We then explore the data set to assess its quality.

Methods. To exploit the main data product for the solar system in Gaia DR2, which is the epoch astrometry of asteroids, it is necessary to take into account the unusual properties of the uncertainty, as the position information is nearly one-dimensional. When this aspect is handled appropriately, an orbit fit can be obtained with post-fit residuals that are overall consistent with the a-priori error model that was used to define individual values of the astrometric uncertainty. The role of both random and systematic errors is described. The distribution of residuals allowed us to identify possible contaminants in the data set (such as stars). Photometry in the G band was compared to computed values from reference asteroid shapes and to the flux registered at the corresponding epochs by the red and blue photometers (RP and BP).

Results. The overall astrometric performance is close to the expectations, with an optimal range of brightness G ~ 12 − 17. In this range, the typical transit-level accuracy is well below 1 mas. For fainter asteroids, the growing photon noise deteriorates the performance. Asteroids brighter than G ~ 12 are affected by a lower performance of the processing of their signals. The dramatic improvement brought by Gaia DR2 astrometry of SSOs is demonstrated by comparisons to the archive data and by preliminary tests on the detection of subtle non-gravitational effects.