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Fig. 3

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Evolution of habitable conditions of a stagnant-lid Earth at different orbital distances. Each row depicts the evolution of surface conditions of a planet with Earth mass and core size at the orbit of Venus (0.723 au), Earth (1 au), and Mars (1.524 au), respectively. Each plot shows the prevailing surface conditions for water as a function of the oxygen fugacity and initial water content of the mantle, with the color background showing the area where the majority of neighboring data points share the same surface conditions. Similar to Fig. 2a, each point represents a snapshot of the evolution at a randomly selected planet age within the given age range. The marker in the middle row marks the evolution shown in detail in Figs. 1a, b, c.

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