Left upper panel: altitude-dependent ion pair-production rates induced by primary protons (Z = 1, solid red line), alpha particles (Z = 2, solid blue line), and Z = 3–28 nuclei (solid green line). The total ion-pair production is given as solid black line. Right upper panel: modeled GCR-induced altitude-dependent absorbed dose rates. Lower panel: corresponding dose-equivalent rates. All three panels show the relative contributions of the GCR nuclei as dashed lines (notation on the upper x-axis).