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Fig. 14

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Characteristic collision speed â0 between solid particles at different points in our simulations, with 1σ error bars, for particle size τf = 0.003. The solid concentration (Z = Σsolid/ Σtotal) has little effect on â0. The value â0< 0.1 cm/s (red dashed line) is a robust upper bound on â0. This corresponds to coagulation timescale of tstick< 105 years, which is significantly less than the disk lifetime (106−107 years). Note that the fitting method can give negative values because it is a simple linear extrapolation (see main text).

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