Top: 181-day moving average of the five TSI records examined (black) and the corresponding candidate TSI reconstruction (red). Middle: the difference between the two, TSI_mod − TSI_obs. The dashed lines mark the zero level and TSI_mod − TSI_obs = ± 0.05 Wm^-2. Bottom: the R² between measured and modelled TSI within a 361-day window centred on each data day. The TIM series is plotted over the other series in blue for comparison.